The Age Of Reason to the Romantic Dawn Essay Example For Students

The Age Of Reason to the Romantic Dawn Essay The eighteenth century saw unprecedented growth of literature and the arts in Europe and America. Britain during this time period also enjoyed prolonged periods of civil peace that stood in sharp contrast to the bloody and protracted civil and international conflicts that lasted throughout the 17th century. Furthermore, as the rising middle classes increasingly sought both education and leisure entertainment, the marketplace for artistic production swelled dramatically. One of the most critical elements of the 18th century was the increasing availability of printed material, both for readers and authors. The period was markedly more generally educated than the centuries before. Education was less confined to the upper classes than it had been in centuries, and consequently contributions to science, philosophy, economics, and literature came from all parts of the newly United Kingdom. It was the first time when literacy and a library were all that stood between a person and education. We will write a custom essay on The Age Of Reason to the Romantic Dawn specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The first half of the century has often been aptly described as the Age of Reason, the Augustan Age and the Neo-classical Age. The very description of this period as Augustan throws light on the prosperity and growth of this period, drawing a direct parallel to the affluent era of Latin literature during the reign of Augustus and in the process, claiming a similar Golden Age of English literature and arts. It was an age of reason in that it was an age that accepted clear, rational methods as superior to tradition. The period saw the development and growth of a new attitude towards life and more importantly towards the role of nature around us. Rationalism, as an ideology, gained importance and influenced literary works to a large extent. Rationalism as a philosophical doctrine, asserts that reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching should determine the truth. Such a philosophy provided stability and order to the society and was hence considered as a welcoming change from the chaos that Europe had recently experienced. The Age of Reason, hence, emphasized on the importance to perceive life in a scientific and detached manner. It rejected emotion or fashionable belief and stressed on a more rational, logical and scientific attitude towards life. The discoveries of Isaac Newton, the rationalism of Rene Descartes, the skepticism of Pierre Bayle, the pantheism of Benedict de Spinoza, and the empiricism of Francis Bacon and John Locke fostered the belief in natural law and universal order and the confidence in human reason that spread to influence all of 18th-century society. These philosophers variously attacked spiritual and scientific authority, dogmatism, intolerance, censorship, and economic and social restraints. They considered the state the proper and rational instrument of progress. A rational and scientific approach to religious, social, political, and economic issues promoted a secular view of the world and a general sense of progress and perfectibility. 18th century English poetry was political, satirical, and marked by the central philosophical problem of whether the individual or society took precedence as the subject of verse. Both the form and content of Augustan verse typically emphasize rationality, coherence, restraint, discipline, and logic. Augustan poets use traditional forms to explore clearly defined general truths: their subject was frequently Man and Nature and their poetry a demonstration of the orderly and logical arrangement of the universe and the place of Man and Nature within it. For the Augustans, Nature was not a wild, untamed force. It was instead a logical and understandable hierarchy. It thus made manifest the orderliness of the universe and the omnipotence of God. The Augustans found in Nature infinite hierarchal systems, all of which reflected the general order of the universe. The rational reader, Augustan poetry argues, can learn important lessons by reading the hierarchal systems in nature correctly. Al though human understanding is, by definition, limited and imperfect, for the Augustans, it could begin to understand the larger order of the universe by contemplating the smaller systems which could be found everywhere in Nature. The task of the Augustan poet, therefore, was to create poetry that reflected and meditated on this hierarchal order so that the reader would be able to contemplate and understand it. The heroic couplet (rhymed iambic pentameter) was one of the most popular verse forms of this era. Its regularity enabled the poet to demonstrate his or her skill in fulfilling the formal demands of rhyme and meter in surprising and witty ways. The poets skill and the readers pleasure lay in the creative fulfillment of the demands of form. In this regard, then, the formal regularity of Augustan verse reflected the universe it claimed to describe: it respected the boundaries of tradition and order and also demonstrated the infinite variety of the natural world. Nature might i nitially seem chaotic to the untrained reader, but Augustan poetry claimed to offer perpetual demonstrations of its inherent regularity. Alexander Pope dominated the entire Augustan ages poetry. His lines were repeated often enough to lend quite a few cliches and proverbs to modern English usage. The literary circle around Pope considered Homer preeminent among the ancient poets and concluded that the writer who imitates Homer is also describing nature. It is with this reasoning that Pope articulates in his Essay on Criticism: Thos rules of old discovered, not devisedAre nature still but nature methodized. .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 , .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .postImageUrl , .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 , .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:hover , .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:visited , .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:active { border:0!important; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:active , .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066 .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uec10aa03dbf4fc51d14ee74aa7f06066:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Pratt, Arts of the Contact Zone EssayThe more general movement, carried forward only with struggle between poets, was the same as was present in the novel: the invention of the subjective self as a worthy topic, the emergence of a priority on individual psychology, against the insistence on all acts of art being performance and public gesture designed for the benefit of society at large. Underneath this large banner raged multiple individual battles. The other development, one seemingly agreed upon by both sides, was a gradual expropriation and reinvention of all the Classical forms of poetry. Every genre of poetry was recast, reconsidered, and used to serve new functions. Ode, ballad, elegy, satire, parody, song, and lyric poetry would all be adapted from their older uses. Like in verse, the tight heroic couplet was common; essay and satire emerged as a dominant genre in prose. The works of Dryden, Swift, Addison and John Gay and many of their contemporaries exhibit an order of clarity and decorum that were formulated in the major critical documents of the age- Drydens Essay of Dramatic Poesy and Popes Essay on Criticism. These works insisted that nature is the true model and standard of writing. The Age of Reason featured the rapid development of the novel, an explosion in satire, the mutation of drama from political satire into melodrama, and an evolution toward poetry of personal exploration. An arch, ironic pose, full of nuance, and a superficial air of dignified calm that hid sharp criticisms beneath marked the satires of the age. Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe (1719) was the first major novel of the new century. Defoe took the actual life and, from that, generated a fictional life, satisfying an essentially journalistic market with his fiction. In the 1720s, Defoe interviewed famed criminals and produced accounts of their lives. In particular, he investigated Jack Sheppard and Jonathan Wild and wrote True Accounts of the formers escapes (and fate) and the latters life. Satire was present in all genres during the Augustan period. Perhaps primarily, satire was a part of political and religious debate. Every significant politician and political act had satires to attack it. Satire, both in prose, drama, and poetry, was the genre that attracted the most energetic and voluminous writing. The satires produced during the Augustan period were occasionally gentle and non-specificcommentaries on the comically flawed human conditionbut they were at least as frequently specific critiques of specific policies, actions, and persons. A single name overshadows all others in 18th-century prose satire: Jonathan Swift. Swift wrote poetry as well as prose, and his satires range over all topics. Critically, Swifts satire marked the development of prose parody away from simple satire or burlesque. A burlesque or lampoon in prose would imitate a despised author and quickly move to reductio ad absurdum by having the victim say things coarse or idiotic. On the other hand, other satires would argue against a habit, practice, or policy by making fun of its reach or composition or methods. What Swift did was to combine parody, with its imitation of form and style of another, and satire in prose. Swifts works would pretend to speak in the voice of an opponent and imitate the style of the opponent and have the parodic work itself be the satire. Swifts first major satire was A Tale of a Tub, which introduced an ancients/moderns division that would serve as a distinction between the old and new conception of value. The moderns so ught trade, empirical science, the individuals reason above the societys, while the ancients believed in inherent and immanent value of birth, and the society over the individuals determinations of the good. In Swifts satire, the moderns come out looking insane and proud of their insanity, and dismissive of the value of history. In Swifts most significant satire, Gullivers Travels (1726), autobiography, allegory, and philosophy mix together in the travels. Thematically, Gullivers Travels is a critique of human vanity, of pride. Particularly after Swifts success, parodic satire had an attraction for authors throughout the 18th century Long prose satires like Swifts Gullivers Travels (1726) had a central character who goes through adventures and may (or may not) learn lessonsIn satire, Pope achieved two of the greatest poetic satires of all time in the Augustan period. The Rape of the Lock was a gentle mock-heroic. Pope applies Virgils heroic and epic structure to this work. The struc ture of the comparison forces Pope to invent mythological forces to overlook the struggle, and so he creates an epic battle, complete with a mythology of sylphs and metempsychosis, over a game of Ombre, leading to a fiendish appropriation of the lock of hair. Finally, a deux ex machina appears and the lock of hair experiences an apotheosis. To some degree, Pope was adapting Jonathan Swifts habit, in A Tale of a Tub, of pretending that metaphors were literal truths, and he was inventing a mythos to go with the everyday. Another movement that pro-ceded the Age of Reason was the Romantic Movement. It was a movement that revolted against the authority of reason of the Augustan Age. Emphasis on a materialistic and mechanical way of life had led many to believe that reason undermined the emotional aspect of life. Creativity and imagination were discouraged and lifes experiences were reduced to being expressed in terms of matter. All that could not be viewed in terms of matter and mechanis m was considered unreal. Under the Romantic Movement, nature became organic rather than mechanistic. It stressed strong emotion, the individual imagination as a critical authority, which permitted freedom within or even from classical notions of form in art, and overturning of previous social conventions, particularly the position of the aristocracy. There was a strong element of historical and natural inevitability in its ideas, stressing the importance of nature in art and language. Romanticism is also noted for its elevation of the achievements of what it perceived as heroic individuals and artists. .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f , .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .postImageUrl , .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f , .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:hover , .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:visited , .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:active { border:0!important; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:active , .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uec7fb83f1e69aab6902a76e9c932ac9f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Good And Bad Effects Of Computer EssayThe growth of this movement gave rise to the Organistic World View where the dynamics of nature were seen as positive. The most important event in the rise of Romanticism was the French Revolution. To many, the revolution held a promise- a hope of being liberated from all forms of tyranny and the limitless possibilities of human nature. Two of the most prominent poets of the period- Wordsworth and Blake- were exceedingly influenced by the revolution and also wrote many poems under its inspiration:Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive.William WordsworthThe British poet James Macpherson influenced the early development of Romanticism wit h the international success of his Ossian cycle of poems published in 1762, inspiring both Goethe and the young Walter Scott. Romanticism in British literature developed in a different form, mostly associated with the poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose book Lyrical Ballads (1798) sought to reject Augustan poetry in favour of more direct speech derived from folk traditions. Both poets were also involved in Utopian social thought in the wake of the French Revolution. The poet and painter William Blake is the most extreme example of the Romantic sensibility in Britain, epitomized by his claim I must create a system or be enslaved by another mans. The term Romanticism derives ultimately from the fictional romances written during the Middle Ages (romance being the medieval term for works in the vernacular Romance languages rather than in Latin). These each involved the episodic adventures of a single individual, though long digressive inner narratives might follow a secondary figure for a time, and they revolved around some central figure: Charlemagne, Alexander the Great and King Arthur were each central figures in such cycles of romances, which were notable for their use of magic and focus on personal characteristics of honor and valor, as well as a sense of lofty idealism and a lost world. A precise characterization and a specific description of Romanticism have been objects of intellectual history and literary history for all of the twentieth century without any great measure of consensus emerging. Some scholars see romanticism as completely continuous with the present, some see it as the inaugural moment of modernity, some see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to the Enlightenment, and still others date it firmly to the direct aftermath of the French Revolution. It might be taken to include the rise of individualism, as seen by the cult of the artistic genius that was a prominent feature in the Romantic worship of Shakespeare and in the poetry of Wordsworth, to take only two examples; a new emphasis on common language and the depiction of apparently everyday experiences; and experimentation with new, non-classical artistic forms. Romanticism also strongly valued the past. Old forms were valued, ruins were sentimentalized as iconic of the action of Nature on the works of man, and mythic and legendary material which would previously have been seen as low culture became a common basis for works of high art and literature. Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, particularly in Poland, which had recently lost its independence. Revival of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romanticist poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations (Russians, Germans, Austrians, Turks, etc.). Patriotism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period.

Creating an Analysis Essay on Archeological Record

Creating an Analysis Essay on Archeological Record In our previous guide, we discussed 20 topics for an analysis essay on archaeological record along with a sample essay plus 10 facts on for an analysis essay on the archeological record and genre to provide you with insights into what topics you can write on and how an analysis essay should be written. In this final guide, creating an analysis essay on archaeological record, we discuss the format, methods and tactics which will help you compose a brilliant paper that’s admired by your professors. But before getting into the whatnots of how an analysis essay should be written, you should know that an analytical essay is not a summary. In theory it may be, but in practice, not so much so. In fact, an analysis essay is written in a way that tells a story about a specific subject and not just providing a summary of it. In simple words, you are answering the â€Å"how† of something. For example: how using certain metaphors adds value to poetry, or how certain themes present themselves in a certain story etc. Now let’s get into the nitty-gritty of how an analytical essay is outlined: The Basic Way to Write an Analytical Essay There are a number of handful ways to write an analytical essay. They all aim at doing the same thing, hence the basics remain the same, which are as follows: Introduction Body Conclusion Now let’s discuss all the basics listed above: The Introduction The best way to introduce your analysis to the reader is to ignite interest in reading further. You can do this by doing three things: Get them hooked from the start. Introduce your thesis statement. One or two sentences on how you will prove your thesis statement. How do you get a reader into reading further? It’s really simple: All you have to do is write something interesting and surprising like a rhetorical statement or question, mention a few statistics that are relevant, or maybe   make a controversial statement. Once you have got your reader interested in reading further, you will want to smack an impressive thesis statement right in their faces. To do this, be clear and concise and get to the point straight away. Afterwards, you want the reader to know how you’re going to provide evidence and prove your thesis statement ― be clear and briefly describe what the reader is in for. The Body This is the part where you can play with formatting and show the reader how creative and ingenious you are. However, keep yourself focused on what really matters. Here is what should be included in your body: Include a Strong Topic Sentence To make your writing stand out, interesting and easy to scan, you should include a â€Å"title sentence† right before a paragraph. It should talk about exactly what the paragraph contains which makes it easier for the reader to know what’s coming next. Introduce Your Claim Now it’s time to get your claim in front of the reader. You should break down your primary claim into several pieces, giving evidences for each part to make it more convincing rather than having the reader read the entire paragraph just to buy into your claim. Speaking of evidence; The Evidence You should always know that evidence is what gives weight to your claim. Remember to always include as much relevant information as you can to support your claim. Ensure that whenever you include any evidence, it ties with the title sentence, otherwise it would look more like a summary than an analysis. Finally, use effective transitions to keep your writing flowing seamlessly. Conclusion Once you’ve proven your point by backing it up with evidence and tying that evidence with your standout title sentence and you’re certain that the reader is convinced, it’s time to conclude your essay. What’s the best way to go about it? Briefly restate what you’ve written above and in different words than what you’ve written in the body. You can add a real-world example that correlates with your argument or add a quote, or paraphrased text on what you’ve just talked about. Final Words That’s it! All you need to do now is re-read your essay from a reader’s perspective and eliminate anything that seems out of place. Make sure your paper is free of errors and mistakes so that it looks like the work of a professional. There is no shame in borrowing a little online expertise and guidance. Don’t hesitate to use these guides as a reference in case you need to better polish off your essay. Cheers!

Overview of Crime of Accessory

Overview of Crime of Accessory The charge of accessory can be brought against anyone who helps someone else commit a crime, but who does not participate in the actual commission of the crime. There are various ways an accessory can help the criminal, including emotional or financial assistance as well as physical assistance or concealment. Accessory Before the Fact If you know someone who is planning to commit a crime and you do anything to help - plan the crime, loan them money or tools, encourage them to commit the crime or even just give advice - you can be charged with accessory before the fact. For example, Mark worked in a building that his friend Tom was planning to rob. Mark provided Tom with the security code to access the building without setting off the security alarm in exchange for $500.  Mark could be charged with accessory before the fact, whether or not Mark committed the crime, for the following reason: 1)  Mark was aware that a crime that was being planned and did not report it to the police. 2)  Mark encouraged Tom to do the crime by providing him with a way to do it that would lessen his chances of getting caught by the police. 3)  Mark received payment in exchange for the security code. Accessory After the Fact Likewise, if you know someone who has already committed a crime and you do anything to help - such as give them a place to hide or help them destroy evidence - you can be charged with accessory after the fact. For example, Fred and Sally decided to rob a restaurant. Fred went into the restaurant to rob it while Sally waited in the get-away car. After robbing the restaurant, Fred and Sally went to Kathy’s house and asked her if they could hide their car in her garage and stay with her for three days to help avoid being arrested. Kathy agreed in exchange for $500. When the three were arrested, Fred and Sally were charged as the principals  (the persons who actually commit the crime) and Kathy was charged as an accessory after the fact. The prosecutor could prove an accessory after the fact because: 1)  Kathy knew that Fred and Sally robbed the restaurant 2)  Kathy sheltered Fred and Sally with the intent to help them avoid arrest, 3)  Kathy helped Fred and Sally avoid arrest so that she could profit from their crime. Proving Accessory After the Fact Prosecutors must prove the following elements to prove accessory after the fact: A  crime  was committed by a principal.The defendant knew that the principal.(1) Committed the crime.(2) Was charged with the crime, or(3) Was convicted of the crime.After the crime was committed, the defendant either helped to  conceal or  aid the principal.The defendant assisted the principal with the  intent  that he/she avoid or escape from arrest, trial, conviction or punishment. Defense Strategies for Charges of Accessory to a Crime On behalf of their client, defense lawyers can fight charges of accessory to a crime in many ways depending on the circumstances, but some of the more common strategies include: 1)  No Knowledge of the Crime. For example, if Joe robbed a restaurant and then went to Tom’s house and told him he needed a place to stay because he was evicted from his apartment and Tom allowed Joe to stay, Tom could not be found guilty of accessory after the fact, because he had no knowledge that Joe had committed a crime or that he was trying to hide from the police. 2)  No Intent A prosecutor must prove that the actions of a person charged with being an accessory to a crime, did so with the intent to help the principal avoid arrest, trial, conviction or punishment. For example, Jane’s boyfriend Tom called her and told her that his truck broke down and that he needed a ride. They agreed that Jane would pick him up in 30 minutes in front of the convenience store. As Jane approached the store, Tom waved her down from an alleyway near the store. She pulled over, Tom jumped in and Jane drove away. Tom was later arrested for robbing the conveyance store and Jane was arrested for being accessory because she drove him from the scene. But since the prosecutors could not prove that Jane had any knowledge that Tom had just committed a crime, she was found innocent of the charges. The prosecutors tried to prove that Jane must have known about the theft because Tom had a history of robbing convenience stores. However, the fact that Tom had been arrested multiple times for a similar crime was not enough to prove that Jane had any knowledge that Tom had just committed a crime when she went to pick him up; therefore they were unable to prove intent. Return to Crimes A-Z

Newly formed (daily formed) brain cells Research Paper

Newly formed (daily formed) brain cells - Research Paper Example Even though there were a few studies in which the presence of [3H] thymidine labeled newly formed neurons was described in hippocampus of rodent at postnatal stages (Altman and Das, 337), but these studies were not given significance in absence of functional evidences (Gage et al., 210). It was only in the 1990s, that the technologies such as [3H] thymidine replacement and immunophenotyping of newborn cells using bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) along with other neuronal markers were developed. During this period twin evidences gradually took shape breaking the dogma of neurogenesis being restricted to prenatal stages. The first evidence came in the success of Reynolds and Weiss (1707) in culturing mutipotent neural progenitors derived from adult mouse brain. The second line of evidences was provided by Kuhn and colleagues (5820) immunophenotyping newly formed cells of rodent brain using BrdU and other neuronal markers. With further advances in technology the presence of neuronal stem cells were found to occur in many areas of the brain. On October 15, 1999, two biologists at Princeton University; Dr. Elizabeth Gould and Dr. Charles G. Gross, reported that neurogenesis occurs regularly in primate (monkey) adding neurons continuously to cerebral cortex (Gross and Gould, 619). Thus the firmly established belief that adult brain is incapable of forming new cells was shattered, more so in light of recent similar evidence provided for birds (Bailey & Kandel, 397). B. Neurogenesis: The mammalian brain comprises of four main types of cells: neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and ependymal cells. These cells originate from early neural epithelium which forms a neural plate in the developing embryo, neurogenesis being preceded by gliogenesis. The differentiation of neuroepithelial cells is determined by inductive cellular interactions and the concentration of expression of patterning gene in the surrounding cells. The patterning genes are determining factors in type and stag e of neurogenesis. Neurogenesis occurs first, the newly formed neurons having moved beyond the germinal ventricular zone by midgestation with help of newly formed glial cells, forming the subventricular Zone (SVZ). This is followed by formation of glioblasts from rest of the neuroepthellial cells in VZ, which then move to adjacent subventricular zone and form astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (Clarke, S13). After birth, glioblast formation stops, germinal VZ vanishes and the remaining neuroepithillial cells form ependymal cells which remain in adult brain as well. SVZ too decreases in size, present next to ependymal cell layer in brain. With further development of the new brain, these neural stem cells become restricted to six major zones of brain, namely olfactory bulb, VZ and SVZ of forebrain, hippocampus, cerebral cortex and cerebellum, each of which is distinct and develop into cells with unique characteristics depending on the region they occupy (Gage, 1433). C. Neurogenesis in a dult brain: New cells in adult brain are established to be formed by: Neural Progenitor cell (NPC) population in olfactory bulb (OB) and dentate gyrus (DG) of hippocampus, the brain area responsible for learning and memory. 2 mutipotential neural stem cell populations (NPC) namely SVZ astrocytes and ventricular ependymal cells from cerebral cortex. Besides these NSCs from non neurogenic periventricular cells have also been isolated and grown in vitro,

Violence and Exploitation of Women and Children Essay

Violence and Exploitation of Women and Children - Essay Example Children are no less exposed to violence than women. In fact, many of the girls that are raped and mutilated are also children. According to the estimates recorded by Feminist.com (2008), as many as 17.6 per cent of women in US have undergone forced rape of which, 21.6 per cent were not even 12 years of age at the time of first attempt of rape and another 32.4 per cent were aged between 12 and 17 years. Baum (2005) has noted that likelihood of children and adolescents aged between 12 and 19 years to be exposed to violence as compared to adults were more than twice. Thousands of children are abuse, physically, emotionally or both in US every year. â€Å"A large proportion of children surveyed (38.7 percent) reported more than one direct victimization (a victimization directed toward the child, as opposed to an incident that the child witnessed, heard, or was otherwise exposed to)† (Finkelhor et al., 2009, p. 7). Many women and children are victimized by their own relatives. It is interesting to note that a vast majority of the women are raped by their own ex-husbands, boyfriends or room mates. According to Feminist.com (2008), 64 per cent of the women who are raped in US are related to the rapists. The rapists usually take revenge from the girls for their personal grudge.

Labour Education And Extensive Employee Development Schemes Management Essay

Labour Education And Extensive Employee Development Schemes Management Essay I think its possible to examine both perspectives in this paper and then decide where you stand in the debate. In essence the assignment is asking you to consider how the various types of education that happen in unions (labour education tools courses, issues courses, etc.) and employment development schemes empower workers to participate in decision-making processes in the workplace (i.e. democratic systems). Do these types of education within unions facilitate a more equal relationship between employers and employees than the education or learning that happens in non-unionzied organizations? Is it possible for workplaces to be run democratically? How does education contribute to establishing equity, empowerment and democracy in workplaces (if it does at all)? Chapter 5 in Bratton et al. discusses many of types of education that unions offer, not only for stewards. While it might be difficult to go into detail about all these forms of education, the question is asking you to think about labour education broadly for workers and the labour movement. The topic of the strategic relevance of human resource management in organizational strategies and business ideals offers a deep foray into one of the main ingredient that successfully underpins the achievement of leadership and managerial objectives. This insight impels the ongoing scrutiny into one of the key leverage of our current human resource management identified as employee development schemes. This assignment begins with an examination of trade unions and strategic HRM issues, will continue with a snapshot description of labour education and workers empowerment as popular organizational initiative and its objective of combining education as a managements approach to workers empowerment. Trade unions and strategic HRM In the literature the new HRM model is depicted as unitary; it assumes that management and workers share common goals, and differences are treated and resolved rationally. According to the theory, if all workers are fully integrated into the business they will identify with their companys goals and managements problems, so that what is good for the company and management is perceived by workers as also being good for them. Critical to achieving this goal is the notion of worker commitment to the organization. This HRM goal has led writers from both ends of the political spectrum to argue that there is a contradiction between the normative HRM model and trade unions. In the prescriptive management literature, the argument is that the collectivist culture, with its them and us attitude, sits uncomfortably with the HRM goal of high employee commitment and the individualization of the employment relationship including individual contracts, communications, appraisal and rewards. Much of the critical literature also presents the new HRM model as inconsistent with traditional industrial relations and collective bargaining, albeit for very different reasons. Critics argue that HRM policies and practices are designed to provide workers with a false sense of job security and obscure underlying sources of conflict inherent in employment relations. According to Godard, historically a major reason for managers adopting progressive [HRM] practices has been to avoid or weaken unions. However, he does concede that it would also be a mistake to view progressive practices as motivated solely or even primarily by this objective (1994, p. 155). Yet other industrial relations scholars, taking a more traditional orthodox pluralist perspective, have argued that independent trade unions and variants of the HRM model cannot only coexist but are even necessary to its successful implementation and development. They argue that trade unions should become proactive or change champions actively promoting the more positive elements of the soft HRM model. Such a union strategy would create a partnership between management and organized labour which would result in a high-performance workplace with mutual gains for both the organization and workers (Betcherman et al., 1994; Guest, 1995; Verma, 1995). What is clearly apparent from a review of the literature is that this aspect of the HRM discourse has been strongly influenced by political-legal developments and the decline in trade union membership and power in the US and UK over the last two decades. Therefore when you read Chapter 12 and the literature, it is important to remember that the debate is set in the contextual developments in the USA and Britain. The idea of embedding worker commitment in HRM model has led to strong argument among writers, that, there is a contradiction between the HRM normative model and trade unions. In the prescriptive management literature, the argument is the collectivist culture, with them and us attitude, sabotages the HRM goal of high employee commitment and the individualization of the employment relationship. Moreover, critics argue that, high-performance-high-commitment HR strategies provide workers with false sense of job security, by hiding underlying sources of conflict, inherent in employment relations. However, other scholars with pluralist perspective argue that not only do trade unions andhigh-commitment HRM model coexist but are indeed necessary if an HPWS is tosucceed (Bratton and Gold, 2003: 60). In addition, other researchers like Sparrow and Hiltrop (1994: 25) in Morley et al., (2006)identified a shift from the HRM function and its associated terrain to a strategic role in other areas of HRM activity. Thus, the greater emphasis on the integration of the human resource function into strategic decision-making, a decentralization of much activity to line managers, and pre-occupation with industrial relations and collective bargaining, has made way for a more SHRM activities such as communications, human resource development, workplace learning, career management and human capital accumulation EMPOWERMENT Empowerment is a concept that gained immense popularity in the 1990s and looks set to continue as a popular organisational initiative in the twenty-first century. It is a managerial ideology in its own right as well as being used with other initiatives and strategies such as BPR, TQM and the learning organisation. It is strongly associated with culture change initiatives, delayering and restructuring, and usually involves devolving power and responsibilities to teams at workplace or customer level (Arkin, 1995). Defining empowerment Various one-dimensional definitions, of empowerment have emanated from the practitioner literature. Typical of this view is Cook and Macaulays (1997) definition of empowerment as a change-management tool which helps organisations create an environment where every individual can use his or her abilities and energies to satisfy the customer (p. 54). Its all-embracing nature skirts over issues of how employees use their abilities, and whether there are boundaries to responsibilities, the degree and type of power employees enjoy, power relations between employee, managers, individuals, teams, customers and the context of empowerment. Both Wilkinson (1998) and Lashley (1997) have commented that empowerment is influenced by historical, economic, social and political factors, and in attempting a definition the context in which it is practised must be considered. Wilkinson (1998) defines empowerment as a managerially led initiative: Unlike industrial democracy there is no notion of workers having a right to a say: it is employers who decide whether and how to empower employees. While there is a wide range of programmes and initiatives which are titled empowerment and they vary as to the extent of power which employees actually exercise, most are purposefully designed not to give workers a very significant role in decision making but rather to secure an enhanced employee contribution to the organisation. Empowerment takes place within the context of a strict management agenda. (p. 40) Empowerment is thus a managerially controlled phenomenon operating at a workbased rather than a strategic level within the organisation. Honold (1997) implicitly acknowledges this by seeing empowerment as control of ones work, autonomy on the job, variations of teamwork, and pay systems that link pay with performance (p. 202). She further divides empowerment into five groupings: leadership, the individual empowered state, collaborative work, structural or procedural change, and the multidimensional perspective that encompasses the other four categories. Multidimensional perspectives on empowerment Honolds (1997: 206) final category shows that one approach is insufficient for empowerment to be effective. Others believe that combining education, leading, mentoring and supporting, providing and structuring is more likely to enable empowerment systems to be successful. Human resource systems should also be fully supportive of these components, providing a contextual framework within which empowerment systems are able to operate. This means linking the empowerment process to the vision, goals and aims of the organisation, through HRD, reward systems and employee relations systems combined with adequate feedback measures. . Bratton John and Gold Jeffrey (2003) Human Resource Management: Theory andPractice third edition London: Palgrave Macmillan Morley Michael J., Gunnigle Patrick and Sullivan Michelle O, Collings David G. Newdirections in the roles and responsibilities of the HRM function Personnel Review Vol.35 No. 6, 2006, 609-617 Sparrow, P. and Hiltrop J. M. (1994), European Human Resource Management inTransition, Prentice-Hall, Hemel Hempstead https://ulib.derby.ac.uk/ecdu/CourseRes/dbs/manpeopl/hold.pdf

Native American culture Essay

Native Americans were influenced by the environment, plants, and animals in the areas in which they settled. Some practices were influenced over time by migration and contact with other tribes along trade routes. Many tribes used herbs and seeds gathered from their immediate environment and from hunting excursions for healing rituals or ceremonies. Many Native medicine practices were lost or driven underground because they were banned or illegal in parts of the United States until 1987; when the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed. In 1987 there were difficulties with ceremonies and rituals on sacred sites, as ritual activities are sometimes forbidden because the land now serves other purposes. Today, Native American and American Indian community-based medical systems still practices some Native American healing rituals, while others secretly practice in their homes and refuse to use conventional medicine. Those who grew up within the Native American culture still apply what they learned or grew up with, which is healing spiritually along with their illnesses. They do not believe in modern medicine and question any of the practices that are available now. Native Americans tap into the knowledge gained from their ancestors and prefer to â€Å"sweat it out† instead of giving in to conventional medicine. Beliefs and Practices. With this in mind, the Native American culture carries the understanding that the harmonious balance between oneself, man and nature is sophisticated and should not only exist, but it needs to be respected. Rituals and practices bring participants into harmony with themselves, their tribe and all of life. There is a belief that violating tribal laws carries consequences to include mental and physical illness, ongoing bad luck, disability or trauma. Any violations must be made right in order for harmony and good health to be restored. Among Native Americans, the idea remains that the sickness and illness that one experiences is related to a spiritual cause, and in turn creates a disparity between mind, body and spirit. Native Americans deem their bodies as an expression of the spirit and just as each person has to keep harmony with oneself, each person is responsible for his or her own health and also recognizing that all thoughts and action (negative or positive) carries consequences; creating either harmony or disharmony. Any disharmony or disparity may cause illnesses. Native Americans believe that they are related to and intertwined with all forms of life; therefore they can call on or evoke spirits, which strengthens their inner being and can be called upon to render assistance; further emphasizing why harmony and oneness in the Native American culture is a necessity. The Native American philosophy recognizes that there are various aspects of natural world that cannot be seen by the naked eye or with any form of technology, but can only be experienced spiritually. Furthermore, Native American healing also includes a variety of practices; such as religion, spirituality, herbal medicine and rituals to treat people with medical and emotional conditions; including the use of sweat baths, usually in a â€Å"sweat lodge† to purify, cleanse and allow participants to emerge reborn. The lodge is a darkened enclosure heated with stones from a fire and represents the warm moist heat of the womb, allowing them to be renewed into the Light of the world. They also wear medicine bags, which are painted or beaded with designs and patterns for the wearer; this is done to entice the spirit of the animal figure of symbol. Most medicine bags usually contain common object such as stones, ash from a ceremony fire, roots and barks, herbs, feathers, dirt from a ceremonial ground, or wood from a tree struck by lightning. Native Americans primarily used herbs to correct and to fix the mind, body and spirit; for example, sage is believed to protect against bad spirits, heal the stomach, nasal passages, colon and kidneys; cedar is used for coughs and forehead colds and sacred or pure tobacco which allows their breath, the source of life to become visible; rising up to the Great Spirit carrying prayers. Native American healing practices differ greatly, as there are over five hundred and the type of ritual is based on their Native American Nations, which are called tribes. There are many tribal differences and the most sacred traditions are still kept secret, passed from one healer to the next. The most common healing ritual involves herbal remedies which can include teas, tinctures, and salves. For example, one remedy for pain can be treated with bark from a willow tree which contains acetylsalicylic acid also known as aspirin. Native American medicine addresses imbalance on every level of life, from the most personal inner life to the most overt behavior. Some illnesses are believed to be caused by angry spirits; a healer would perform a ritual to cleanse this person and them. Disease is not defined by physical pathology, but viewed from an expanded context that includes body, mind, spirit, emotions, social group, and lifestyle. Most Native Americans believe that illnesses come from spiritual problems and that their healing practices can cure almost anything. Some healers are believed to have cured heart disease, diabetes, thyroid problems, asthma, and cancer. Scientifically, there is no evidence that supports that Native American healers or herbalists can cure cancer or any diseases and there have been no scientific studies that have supported those claims. On the other hand, individual reports suggest that it can reduce pain and stress and improve quality of life and Native and non-Native Americans alike–suggest that these methods really do work for a range of physical and emotional ailments, including heart disease, diabetes, thyroid conditions, cancer, skin rashes, asthma, alcoholism, and depression. Native Americans use a wide variety of treatments such as herbal remedies, purifying rituals, shamanism, and symbolic healing rituals to treat illnesses of both the body and spirit. Native Americans rely heavily on herbal remedies which are used to treat physical conditions, whereas purifying rituals are used to cleanse and prepare the body for healing. Shamanism refers to the belief and practice of communication with the spiritual world. Shamans are intermediaries between the human and spiritual world and treat sickness and diseases by healing the spirit. Symbolic healing rituals use ceremonies involves the community and sometimes included chanting, singing, painting bodies, dancing, exorcisms, sand paintings, and limited use of mind-altering substances can be incorporated into the ritual to persuade the spirits to heal the sick person. These rituals can last hours or even weeks and are a way of asking for help from the spiritual dimension and the healing treatments are usually a slow process, spread over days or weeks. The person who is ill is with the healer most of the time to make sure that the healer can connect with the spirit of the one who is ill. Prayer is also an essential part of all Native American healing technique. Most Native Americans see their healers for spiritual reasons, such as to seek guidance, truth, balance, reassurance, and spiritual well-being and call conventional medicine a cure to the â€Å"white man’s illness. † They prefer to use spiritual healers and native remedies in place of conventional medicine. Conclusion Finally, Native American health beliefs and practices as patients and as medical professionals can have an adverse effect. Healers and family members perform or participate in ceremonies to rid patients of bad spirits, or offer song and prayer in blessing a room where someone has died, but modern medicine, also known as the cure to the â€Å"white man’s illness† still has to intervene. This intervention is frequently a must as herbs and potions used by herbalists, medicine men and women may have not been thoroughly tested to find out how they interact with medicines, foods, or dietary supplements. When a Native American physician goes to see a patient, due to strong cultural doctrines and beliefs, eye contact is avoided and speaks in third person when delivering a difficult diagnosis. If the patient does not inquire about the chances of survival, nothing is said about it. Strongly held Navajo cultural tenets do not allow directly linking a person to an illness and its consequences. To do so could be interpreted as wishing harm. Cultural deference only goes so far; ultimately, the patient has the right to know everything and all options for treatment in order to make an informed decision. Nowadays, Native American patients may seek medicine men for encouragement and to restore their spirituality, yet they also must put faith in modern doctors. Bridging the cultural chasm between physicians and traditional healers is seen as essential for improving care to the Native American population. Although Native American healing has not been shown to cure disease, anecdotal reports suggest that it can reduce pain and stress, and improve quality of life. Also, due to the limitations in the studies that were conducted, it is impossible to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of Native American healing, consequently requiring more clinical studies to confirm the benefits of the specific healing methods. Regardless, the communal support provided by this type of healing could have beneficial effects. Prayers, introspection, herbal remedies native ceremonies, rituals and meditation can be calming, reduces stress and can create a lifetime of comfort, benefit and peace of mind for those who live and believe in it.